The Punic Wars

Occurring between 264 to 146 BCE, the Punic Wars were some of Rome’s first skirmishes on an international level. Roman territory at this time was still restricted to the Italian peninsula, and had only recently consolidated her holdings south of the Arno River. International involvement at this time wasn’t really intentional, it started by trying to help out a friend, but as two growing commercial powers with energy to burn, conflict between these two rising powers was inevitable and the Mediterranean just wasn’t big enough for the two of them.

So who were they? They weren’t Punes, that would just be mean. They were Carthaginians from Carthage, an African settlement of traders originally from Phoenicia. That’s where we get “Poenus”, and thanks to the wonderful intricacies of Latin we get the adjective form of “Punic” and hence the Punic Wars.

We know that Carthage was a strong commercial center with colonies in Spain, Sicily, and along the African coast. The military was primarily made up of mercenaries and led by professional Carthaginian commanders. Literature and records of Carthaginian life were for the most part wiped out. The wars with the Romans were bloody and drawn out, and in the end Romans prevailed completely.

Act One: The First Punic War 264-241 BCE – “What’s mine is definitely not yours”

When Carthaginians were brought to Sicily to help with a seige, then wouldn’t leave when the invitation was up, Campanian mercenaries turned to Rome for help. The Roman muscle arrived and the Carthaginians took off. But as they left, the Carthaginians must have looked over their shoulder and said “Wait a second” and decided to recapture Sicily. Fought primarily at sea, the standard procedure of the time was to hook the opposing ship and rush aboard to fight hand to hand and overwhelm them with force. Romans built a fleet to complete with the navel abilities of Carthage and were successful on land as well as the sea. However, an attempt to invade Africa backfired and it was eight more years before the Romans could definitively claim victory.

I took a quick screen shot from GoogleEarth to illustrate the locations of Rome, Sicily and Carthage.

Players in the First Punic War. Image thanks to GoogleEarth.

 

Act Two: The Second Punic War – “Hannibal ad portas!” 218-202 BCE

The Second Punic War introduces one of the most intriguing characters in all of Roman history. Hannibal’s story is one for another post, but the telling of the Second act is largely a retelling of his life. At the close of the First Punic War, the Romans set harsh reparations against the Carthaginians, and restricted their territory in Spain to the Ebro River, all except the town of Saguntum, which would remain under Roman protection.

If Hannibal started the conflict you could say the Romans didn’t try very hard to stop him by leaving by Saguntum so vulnerable. He attacked Saguntum in 218 BCE and preceded to confound the Romans and every historian after in a 16 year series of bold and daring maneuvers, almost all of them conducted in Roman territory. He and his army danced through Roman territory, pillaged the country side and came close enough to nearly knock on the gate of Rome itself. Lack of funding and support eventually forced him to retreat to Carthage where he was pursued to defeat by the Romans at Zama in 202 BCE.

Hannibal’s route during his Italian Campaign. Thanks to wikipedia.

 

And the Third – “Carthage must be Destroyed”

Despite harsh sanctions and loss of significant territory, Carthage was still a bur under the Roman saddles. Wary of the possibility of a Carthaginian uprising Cato stood before the senate and warned that Carthage was only three days away by boat and still posed a threat. When Carthage breached a treaty by taking up arms against the Numidians, Rome dispatched an army that succinctly destroyed the city within three years.

The Punic Wars brought changes to the Romans, even in victory. Act One put the military in a prominent new role and increased the amount of funding necessary to keep the forces well supplied. Act Two left the country side in shambles and brought the populations flocking into the city looking for work and protection. Not everyone found work and that created poverty and unemployment inside the city walls as well as left the country side unoccupied and unproductive. Act Three declared Rome a regional power as they absorbed all of Carthage’s territory and almost over night provided new commercial opportunities as well as wealthy provinces that needed competent and trustworthy governors. When everything was said and done, the Rome of the early Republic was long gone. Rome was now involved in Europe, Africa and Asia and was headed towards many internal changes as well.

Pope Gregory VII

Pope Gregory VII, from culturalcatholic.com

Pope Gregory VII was pontiff from 1073 till 1085. He earns a notable place in the Pope series for his involvement in the Investiture Controversy that was on going during the 11^th and 12^th centuries. As a Cardinal, he was an economic reformer, credited with a period of economic growth in Rome, but his actions as Pope came to define his lifetime.

The power of investiture was typically given to nobility and rulers. To “invest” someone essentially means to appoint he person to a position of power. For centuries, churches had been built by a King or ruler’s charity and remained under that ruler’s protection. Appointing lay officials naturally fell under their umbrellas as well. The kings took advantage of this right and invested loyal followers with powerful positions in return for continued support. In a similar fashion, the U.S. President has the power to appoint cabinet members and justices to high-ranking offices. The ability to “invest” was an therefore a crucial power in medieval Europe. However, allowing secular kings to appoint high ranking Church officials weakened the Church by comparison and the Pope especially.

In short, the Popes were not pleased with secular powers appointing some of God’s highest servants. They believed that power should rest in the hands of the Pope. And once the Pope had the power to appoint clerical leaders all over Europe, the Holy See then extends it’s own power through every kingdom in the land through it’s chosen representatives.

It turned out to be one of the most important power struggles in the Middle Ages and all the Church needed was an opportunity to take that power back. It came in 1056, when Henry IV became Holy Roman Emperor at six years old. Seizing the moment of weakness, the Church created the College of Cardinals to officially elect the Pope and cut ties with the Holy Roman Emperor that had been in place since the reign of Charlemagne.

Dictatus Papae, from faculty.cua.edu

Then in 1075 Pope Gregory VII laid down the law in the papal bull known as “Dictatus Papae” or Powers of the Pope. It claimed that the church in Rome had authority over all others, and officials from that church had authority as well. Important for this discussion is the flat out proclamation that the Pope can appoint and dispose Bishops, without holding a synod. The Church officially removed the power of investiture from the rulers of Europe and saved it for themselves.

The next year, Gregory deposes Henry IV, excommunicates him, and absolves and forbids all Christians from serving him. The Pope fired the King.

“Walk to Canossa,” Wikipedia, Henry appears at the door of Pope Gregory

But Gregory overplayed his power as the keeper of the keys to heaven. In 1077, at Canossa, Henry the deposed king, makes a brilliant move. He travels to the Pope’s residence seeking forgiveness. Barefoot, basically wearing a potato sack, Henry presents the perfect image of the penitent Christian. Playing on the Pope’s primary role of priest, Gregory has few choices except to restore the contrite ruler to his throne. In 1084, the empire strikes back. Henry returns and brings his army down into Italy and razes the city of Rome, forcing Gregory to flee into exile.

Henry establishes a pope that was more amenable, Anti-Pope Clement III. But Gregory was not without friends an supporters, and the supporters who manage to escape Rome meet and a place called Quedlinberg to elect Urban II and chase Clement out of town. If you’re ever in Rome, take a look at the fantastic walls that surround Vatican City and you’ll understand what it was like to be Pope back in the day. Pope Urban II would cause his own ripples throughout Europe as would the eventual compromise reached by the Popes and Emperors.

The long-term effects of the Investiture Controversy essentially weakened the kings and rulers in Germany and Italy as the Papacy gained strength and power into the 14^th and 15^th centuries. It separated the Church into it’s own entity and left behind a secular Europe with it’s own bureaucratic system. It consolidated the Church’s authority as a self-governing body and placed a series of representatives loyal to the Church and Pope across Europe.

The contest between the Church and secular rulers would appear again in the 15^th century between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France. Stay tuned!

Romulus, Remus, and the Beginning of Rome

Romulus and Remus, by Peter Paul Rubens, wikipedia commons. Found in the Capitoline Museum.

The founding brothers of Rome, their life is largely recalled in part myth, part legend. The story was originally told to me as a children’s story and began something like this:

A long time ago, there lived a good king Numitor. King of Alba Longa, Numitor had a jealous brother named Amulius who one day took the throne from his good and just brother. To make sure no one would over throw him, Amulius locked Numitor’s daughter Rhea Silvia in a convent, to make sure she would never have children. But Rhea Silvia was visited by Mars, the God of War. She gave birth to not just one son but two, Romulus and Remus. The evil king took the children and sent them down the Tiber River in a basket. But the calm river washed the basket ashore at the bottom of a hill. There, a she-wolf found them and cared for them. The twins were found by a shepherd who raised them.

When Romulus and Remus were grown up they took the throne of Alba Longa back and restored their grandfather King Numitor. But then the young men wanted to found a city of their own. Romulus liked the Palatine Hill but Remus liked the Aventine Hill. They considered the auspices and the signs favored Romulus. He killed his brother and founded the city of Rome.

There a great deal of historical muddiness surrounding the fate of Remus. Since no city wants to be founded on an act of fratricide, it is also told that friends of Romulus killed Remus. Whatever did happen, Romulus began a small village on the Palatine Hill, who’s founding is generally celebrated on April 21^st, 753 BCE.

Qualities of very early Rome and the reign of Romulus

Pope Leo III

courtesy of wikipedia

Pope Leo III rose through the ranks of Roman society to succeed Adrian I in 795. Upon his appointment, Leo sent word to Charlemagne, who promised protection in return for prayers. That protection proved handy, as slighted Roman nobles remained hostile to Leo, and in 799 he was attack and disposed by a mob. Forcibly removed, he fled to Charlemagne who sent him back to the city with and escort. Leo’s greatest moment, in a historical context, came on Christmas Day 800 AD, when he crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor. From a Roman perspective, this caused a divide with the Eastern Empire, and disagreements as to who actually ruled what. From a European perspective, this invested Charlemagne with the authority of an Emperor and the blessing of the Pope.

Where you can find Leo today: Not much remains, but at the Lateran Basilica you can find the Leonian Triclinium, a copy of the mosaics that decorated the banquet hall built by Leo III. Also, as an indication of the status of Charlemagne within the Church, you can find the equestrian statue of Charlemagne directly across from Constantine’s in the Scala Regia.

Pope Gregory I

Pope Gregory I, otherwise known as St. Gregory the Great, was elected Pope in 590 AD and served until 604 AD. Son of a prominent Roman family, Gregory was raised during a difficult time in Roman history. In the Fourth century, Rome had been abandoned for the wealth of eastern Byzantium, leaving Rome without an Emperor. In 476 AD, Rome finally fell to the Gothic invasions that had been plaguing the borders steadily for a century. It was during this time of wars and plague that Gregory grew up on the Caelian Hill, eventually become urban prefect when he was thirty-two.

In 574, Gregory chose to lead a life of contemplation and prayer, and promptly entered the Monastery of St. Andrew. His devoutness earned him the notice of the Pope, who appointed Gregory Deacon of Rome, and sent him as a delegate to Constantinople.

In 590, Gregory was brought back to the secular world as Pope Gregory I. He was to a great extent a civic protector of the abandoned city, and negotiated a series of peace treaties with the invading barbarians and Lombards. In religious matters, Gregory is credited with rejuvenating the Church’s missionary work, send Augustine to convert Britain. He revised the liturgy and the sacraments, harnessed the Churches resources towards helping the poor, and continued a monastic lifestyle. He is the patron Saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers.

Where you can find Gregory today:

Gregory I is interred in St. Peter’s Basilica but walking around Rome you can still find allusions to his life. During Gregory’s time as Pope, Rome was hit by a terrible plague. In an effort to end it, Gregory led a march through the city. At Hadrian’s Tomb legend has it Gregory had a vision of the Archangel Michael on top of the tomb, sheathing his sword, signifying that Rome would be spared. The 18^th century version can be seen atop the Castel St. Angelo today.

Constantine’s Early Churches

After Constantine passed the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, he supplied Christianity with its first public places of worship. Due to the worshiping style of Christianity, they required large spaces where many people could worship at once. Constantine therefore appropriated several ancient Roman law-courts known as basilicas to house the new religion.  This gave Christianity more than just space, it allowed the new religion to emerge literally from underground and establish themselves as a religion here to stay. The community nature of Christianity required a larger space for worship than the temples of Rome. Giving early Christian leaders the basilica was also a powerful statement, as Constantine was essentially allowing them to worship in the local town hall. It was a very public affirmation of Imperial support, as well as the dedicatory inscription on Constantine’s Triumphal arch.

The floor plan of a typical basilica style church enables us to view the standard feature of a basilica style church and recognize the features that carry over to the more elaborate churches of later centuries. The plan allowed for the long, dramatic nave, and the heart of the church to be located at the transept. Additional side aisles were added later, as the number of pilgrims visiting the holy relics inside the church increased during the Medieval Period.

The addition of the atrium was a vital part in the early stages of Christianity, when only those who had been baptized were allowed to enter the holy space of the Church. In the atrium, people could still gather to listen to sermons. For this reason, a baptistery was also required. The baptistery is typically a small circular chamber located just outside the holy space church. The need for both these features eventually faded out, as the population was largely converted to Christianity.

Travelers Map of Rome

I’ve been working on this map for a while, as a way to help my family get the most out of our trip to Rome. Visual works best for me and Google Maps allows you to gain a perspective of the city as you take a tour from your lap top. Included in each of the sites I’ve been adding a little history for some context, as well as some tips for traveling and planning a trip.

On the map are some helpful walking paths. They might appear random, but often times they are simply the path of least resistance to many of these sites. However, if one city would be the place to literally go off the beaten path, Rome would be the one. For the most part Rome is surrounded by the Tiber River, wander at will and let the River be your bumper.

Enjoy! I hope it’s helpful!

Temple of Hercules Victor

The Temple of Hercules Victor located on the Forum Boarium is a Roman temple to the god Hercules, built a circular Greek style known as peripteral, encircled by a colonnade. The earliest surviving marble structure left in Rome, the build was erected in the 2^nd century BCE of travertine stone and tuff foundations. The fluted columns are again indicative of the Greek design, as the Etruscan style would have favored unfluted columns. Corinthian capitals top each of the lofty columns. The fact that the Temple remains today can be attributed to the Papal Bull of Innocent III, who decreed the temple be converted in to a church in the 12^th century. Holy places stay holy, and therefore protected as did the Temple of Portunus and the Pantheon.

Titian the “Sun amidst small Stars”

Titian, known as Tiziano in Italian, was born in approximately 1485 in Capo del Cadore in the Northern Italian Alps. He trained in Venice with his brother under the guidance of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini. His work in frescoes was recognized at an early age and he soon became the preeminent artist in the Venetian Republic.

Titian’s northern origins perhaps influenced his inclusion of oil painting into his works. The use of oil paint was traditionally a hallmark of Northern Europe but was brought to Rome by artists like Titian and the Carracci, who were born and raised in Northern Italy.

His extremely long career is punctuated by commissions and extended stays in a variety of places. One of the first international artists, a major part of Titian’s career was concentrated in portraiture. He completed a number of works for Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Phillip II, and the Farnese Family. Titian’s ability to temper characteristic traits in order to best portray a given subject comes through in his handling of a wide variety of subjects.

Of the four Titian’s you can find in Rome, Sacred and Profane Love in the Borghese Gallery is arguably the greatest. Completed in 1514 to celebrate the marriage of Nicolo Aurelio and Laura Bagarotto, the bride is depicted dressed in white accompanied by Cupid and Venus. The pastoral landscape in the background is another trademark of Northern European painting and was a new concept for Italian art. A moralistic interpretation to the painting was given in the 1800’s which gave the viewer a choice between sacred and profane love.

The remaining works of Titian in Rome can be found in the Doria Pamphilii Gallery, the Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica and the Vatican Museum.

Enemies

Anyone’s whose ever stood for anything garners a few enemies over time. Rome certainly had her share. But there were a few greats that really stand out over the centuries. The first would be Hannibal. The Carthaginian General got close enough to knock on Rome’s front door. Next is Cleopatra, ruler of Egypt and is remarkable as a female threat. The third enemy shared a long term relationship with the Romans and collectively were referred to as Barbarians. After the capital of the Roman empire had been transferred to Constantinople the rising Ottoman Empire threatened borders on the east.